The world's biggest net creditor doesn't have the all-important triple-A credit rating, but the world's biggest net debtor does
• Graeme Wearden
• guardian.co.uk, Wednesday 27 July 2011 16.49 BST
• Article history
Credit ratings began as money poured into US railway companies in the 19th century. In the rush to open up the American continent, investors sought information to help them profit without losing their shirts.
As the US risks losing its AAA credit rating, we explain why the coveted top-notch grading matters.
Where does the AAA rating come from?
Rating agencies date back to the 19th century, and the heady early days of the US railways. In the rush to lay track and build railway stations across the American continent, investors craved information to help them profit without losing their shirts. Many railway companies went bankrupt, with some businessmen – among those later dubbed "robber barons" – using borderline-illegal tactics to cripple their rivals.
Henry Varnum Poor (one of the "fathers" of Standard & Poor's (S&P) credit-rating agencies) was one of the first analysts to tackle the railway tycoons. He collected and published analyses of the financial health of the various railroad companies that sprang up across the country. John Moody launched a similar venture, called Analyses of Railroad Investments, in the early 20th century.
Fitch says it was the first agency to create an alphabetical ranking for bonds issues by countries, called sovereign debt, and corporations in 1924. Fitch, Moody's and S&P, in 1975, became the first three companies to be recognised as "statistical rating agencies". Today, there are 10 rating agencies approved by the US securities and exchange commission.
What is special about the AAA rating?
The "triple A" rating is the highest possible rating that can be given to a company or country. S&P says that it only awards AAA when there is an "extremely strong capacity to meet financial commitments". This gold standard means an AAA-rated borrower can usually secure a loan at lower interest rates, as there is much less risk that the money will not be repaid.
Is AAA a guarantee, then, that a borrower will not default?
No. The rating agencies are careful to point out that their opinions exist "within a universe of credit risk", So, there is less chance of an AAA bond defaulting than a BBB one, but still some danger.
How many countries have an AAA rating?
Because the ratings agencies use slightly different methodologies, there is no single list of AAA-rated sovereign debt. As an example, Standard & Poor's have assigned the AAA rating to the following: Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Singapore, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States. Territories that are not sovereign are also included: Guernsey, Hong Kong and the Isle of Man.
Why don't China or Japan make the cut?
Japan lost its AAA rating in 2001, when S&P warned that its weak economic growth and large deficit made it more of a credit risk. It is now only rated as AA-, the fourth-highest rating, with S&P. As Credit Suisse's Andrew Garthwaite pointed out, it is ironic that the world biggest net creditor has a lower credit rating than the world's biggest net debtor [the US].
In practice, the lower rating has little impact, as much of Japan's government debt is bought by its own citizens or corporations.
Despite its strong economic growth, China does not qualify for the AAA rating either. S&P says that "contingent liabilities" (ie unknown but possible future debts) in the Chinese banking system could knock its growth off course, and assigns it an AA- grade.
Does one cut lead to another?
Once a country is downgraded once, it can quickly see its rating deteriorate. This happened to Greece, which was cut from A to A- in January 2009, and two years later is about to default.
Gary Jenkins, a City analyst at Evolution Securities, believes that "from a rating agency perspective the first cut is the hardest ... once that initial downgrade has been made, no doubt others will follow."
Once a triple-A rating is lost, is it gone for ever?
No, it is possible to regain the faith of the rating agencies. Back in 1994, Moody's stripped Canada of its "Aaa" rating, citing concern over its rising debts. Seven years later, after a strict austerity programme helped to rebuild the nation's finances, it was upgraded to triple-A.